tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32462702275338411962024-02-20T18:48:50.380+02:00Language is things we doLars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.comBlogger52125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-47394276112295799742018-06-30T13:11:00.000+03:002018-06-30T13:11:17.142+03:00New issue of Nordic Wittgenstein Review<a href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com</a>Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-83495190400295186462018-06-29T11:55:00.002+03:002018-06-29T11:55:51.583+03:00On free will and free thought <span class="" style="font-family: BookAntiqua; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua";">In</span> deliberating what to do, as well as in judging about factual issues, one takes oneself to be free to exercise one’s judgment, based on the merits of the case at hand. Now this is not compatible with believing that the thoughts that come into one’s head, or the movements one performs, are produced by causal chains which, being causal, are not responsive to reason. </span><i class="" style="font-family: BookAntiqua; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Introspectively </i><span class="" style="font-family: BookAntiqua; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">one may of course have the feeling of reaching correct judgments on the basis of reasons, but this then is something one must admit to be an illusion (or delusion) since one has stipulated that these mental occurrences are causally determined. This is similar to dreaming that one has solved a mathematical puzzle or is able to speak Arabic: this does not entail that one actually has solved the puzzle or is able to speak Arabic, but is simply a mirage, an impression produced by neurological causes. (Along this line of argument, the neurologists who argue that thought processes are nothing but causal sequences of events are thereby cancelling their own conclusions, since these are presumed to be derived from empirical observation through the use of reasoning.)</span>Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-18770706470625384782017-12-28T19:52:00.000+02:002017-12-28T19:52:00.425+02:00Language and creativity<div style="-webkit-text-stroke-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); -webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-family: "Book Antiqua"; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 8px;">
<span style="-webkit-font-kerning: none;">I recently had occasion to review <i>Wittgenstein and the Creativity of Language, </i>a collection of essays edited by Sebastian Sunday Grève and Jakub Macha. (<i>Philosophy </i>92 (2017), 647-650.) The collection contains a number of interesting contributions, beside a few that I thought needlessly inaccessible. However, the task started a question germinating, which did not seem to be addressed directly in the book. </span></div>
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<span style="font-kerning: none;">What exactly is meant by the idea that language is creative? It might be natural to suppose that creativity is somehow <i>central to the way we use</i> language: in using language and in responding to its use we are being creative. </span></div>
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<span style="font-kerning: none;">Being creative in one’s use of words - one is inclined to think - is using them in new ways. And responding creatively is responding to new uses. And so the idea is that in speaking we are constantly creating and responding to new uses of words. But here’s the catch: what <i>is </i>”a new way of using a word”? When is the use the same as before and when is it different from before? </span></div>
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<span style="font-kerning: none;">One of the central points to which Wittgenstein drew attention in <i>Philosophical Investigations </i>is that what will count as ”the same” something or other in any given case is dependent on the framework of comparison that is relevant to the context at hand. When it comes to comparing physical objects, for instance, two objects may be ”the same” or ”not the same” with respect to colour, size, shape, weight, material, country of origin, price, etc. (And where comparing colours is concerned, in turn, the accepted degree of variation is dependent on the purpose of the comparison. And so forth.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-kerning: none;">The same goes for cases of speaking and responding.</span></div>
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<span style="font-kerning: none;">When it is said that language allows for ”using words in a new way”, however, it is left open what the relevant framework of comparison might be. Any two situations of speaking can be considered ”the same” from some point of view and ”not the same” from another point of view. So saying that in speaking we may often or sometimes use words in new ways is really not saying anything at all.</span></div>
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<span style="font-kerning: none;">This is not to deny that people may use language in creative ways. We may be struck by a deep or witty comparison, an illuminating metaphor, etc., as by Benjamin Franklin’s aphorism: ”A good conscience is a continual Christmas”, or by Churchill’s characterization of Clement Attlee as ”a sheep in sheep’s clothing”, or by someone who says that ”Trump appeals to the American Id”. To call such sayings creative is not to register an absolute difference between this and other uses of these words, but simply to express one’s reaction to the use. And people may be differently struck by different uses.</span></div>
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Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-91437456226580792352016-07-01T14:05:00.002+03:002016-07-01T14:05:32.122+03:00A child learning to speak will not understand herself as in a process of learning<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-74881404124079469152016-03-20T17:28:00.003+02:002016-03-20T17:28:35.916+02:00“What makes us conscious?” <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
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<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
‘Do you think that the machine you
are reading this story on, right now, has a feeling of “what it is like” to be
in its state?</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What
about a pet dog? Does it have a sense of what it’s like to be in its state? It
may pine for attention, and appear to have a unique subjective experience, but
what separates the two cases?</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
These are by no
means simple questions. How and why particular circumstances may give rise to
our experience of consciousness remain some of the most puzzling questions of
our time.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
Newborn babies,
brain-damaged patients, complicated machines and animals may display signs of <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21528836-200-animals-are-conscious-and-should-be-treated-as-such/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">consciousness</span></a>.
However, the extent or nature of their experience remains a hotbed of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3814086/"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">intellectual
enquiry</span></a>.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
Being able to
quantify consciousness would go a long way toward answering some of these
problems. From a clinical perspective, any theory that might serve this purpose
also needs to be able to account for why certain areas of the brain appear <a href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Neural_correlates_of_consciousness"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">critical to
consciousness</span></a>, and why the damage or removal of other regions
appears to have relatively <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/phineas-gage-neurosciences-most-famous-patient-11390067/?no-ist"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">little impact</span></a>.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
One such theory
has been gaining support in the scientific community. It’s called Integrated
Information Theory (<a href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Integrated_information_theory"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">IIT</span></a>),
and was <a href="http://www.biolbull.org/content/215/3/216.full.pdf+html"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">proposed in
2008</span></a> by Guilio (sic) Tononi, a US-based neuroscientist.</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
It also has one
rather surprising implication: consciousness can, in principle, be found <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/370/1668/20140167"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">anywhere</span></a>
where there is the right kind of information processing going on, whether
that’s in a brain or a computer.’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The above quotation is from an article by
Matthew Davidson, <a href="http://theconversation.com/what-makes-us-conscious-50011">“What makes us conscious?”</a>
I’m curious about what kind of theory is being proposed here. The proposal has
a similar ambiguity as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_test">the Turing test</a>. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Is Tononi
putting forward a stipulative definition: “let’s call a machine conscious if it
has such and such characteristics”? If so, it would of course be a mistake to
suppose that this constituted a discovery. Anyone is free to formulate stipulative
definitions. Whether they will enjoy wide acceptance depends on their utility for
the purpose for which the stipulation is to be used.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Or is he
proposing an empirical theory? But then the question is: how is it to be
tested? By what criteria are we to establish whether the theory holds good in a
given case? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">Not only does he
seem not to provide a criterion, but somehow the idea of proposing some
specific mark of consciousness seems misconceived. The problem, as I see it, is
that the word “consciousness” has a variety of uses. There are of course the
regular down-to-earth uses, as when we ask “Jack regained consciousness a
little after 5<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>yesterday”, or “I wasn’t conscious
I had to file a tax-return by April 1.” The word is also used in more abstract ways,
as in discussing animal consciousness, etc. In these contexts, however, it does
not refer to some specific mental phenomenon, but rather functions as an
umbrella term, to refer to the applicability of words such as “sensation”, “perception”,
“intention”, “awareness”, “attention”, etc. And applicability is – to put it
crudely - a practical matter. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB">What tends to
lead us astray here – putting it briefly </span><span lang="EN-GB">–</span><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>is our inclination to accept the dualist idea that consciousness is a specific
metaphysical substance which makes such things as sensations possible.</span></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-9435508878024335442015-12-27T10:06:00.001+02:002015-12-27T10:06:52.587+02:00NORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW 4 (2015), No 2, available onlineThe Nordic Wittgenstein Review has published a new issue: Vol. 4, No. 2,
(2015). It is available Open Access, i.e. free of charge, online, for
anyone to read. See below.
<br />
<br />Peaceful holidays to those who have them!
<br />
<br />Best wishes,
<br />Yrsa, and the Editors Martin and Anne-Marie
<br />
<br />PS. CFP - Online submission by January 31, 2016
<br />________
<br />
<br />NORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW 4 (2) 2015
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/current">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/current</a>
<br />
<br />Note from the Editors
<br />Yrsa Neuman, Anne-Marie Søndergaard Christensen, Martin Gustafsson
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3399/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3399/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />INVITED PAPER
<br />
<br />Naturalism, Conventionalism, and Forms of Life: Wittgenstein and the
"Cratylus"
<br />Paul M Livingston
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3399/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3399/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />ARTICLES
<br />
<br />Reincarnation and the Lack of Imagination in Philosophy
<br />Mikel Burley
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3281/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3281/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />A Missing Folio at the Beginning of Wittgenstein's MS 104
<br />Martin Pilch
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3300/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3300/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />"Let us imagine...": Wittgenstein's Invitation to Philosophy
<br />Beth Savickey
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3292/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3292/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />FROM THE ARCHIVES
<br />
<br />On the Ketner and Eigsti Edition of Wittgenstein’s Remarks on Frazer’s
"The Golden Bough"
<br />Peter K. Westergaard
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3280/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3280/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />BOOK REVIEWS
<br />
<br />Wittgenstein’s Lecture on Ethics, edited by Zamuner, Di Lascio & Levy
<br />Lars Hertzberg
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3395/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3395/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Some Thoughts on "Varieties of Skepticism" by James Conant and Andrea
Kern (eds.)
<br />Adam Leite
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3397/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3397/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Review of "Clarity and Confusion in Social Theory" by Leonidas Tsilipakos
<br />Robert Vinten
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3391/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3391/pdf</a>
<br />
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-7588659362134072202015-12-19T18:05:00.000+02:002015-12-19T18:05:10.981+02:00Jon Fosse between the language games<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
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Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
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</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin-top:0cm;
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">I recently had occasion to watch the play <i>Barnet </i>[The child] by Norwegian
playwright Jon Fosse at the Dramaten Theatre in Stockholm. It was a moving
experience; the dialogue moves slowly and undramatically, the surface is calm
but strong emotions move underneath: dread, love, compassion. Speakers
communicate not so much through the specific things said, the words used, as
through the way they speak, or through the mere fact of saying something.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span><span> </span>The dialogue has a ring of Beckett or
Pinter, but in Fosse’s play the words are closer to actual everyday
conversation. He appears to have an ability to listen to the way we actually
talk free from preconceptions about what linguistic communication is. (Fosse also
seems to view his characters with more sympathy than Beckett and Pinter do.)</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>The
play is about a man, Fredrick, and a woman, Agnes, who meet, fall in love and
move in together. She becomes pregnant, there are complications, she is taken to
hospital, tests have to be made to determine whether labour will have to be
induced prematurely, which would entail a grave risk for the survival of the
child. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Here
is a conversation between Fredrick and a nurse waiting for the test results:</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">FREDRICK</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">(Questioning)</span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Does
something like this happen often</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">NURSE</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">It
seems so anyway</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">FREDRICK</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Because
it’s things like this they work </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">on
here</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">NURSE</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Yes</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">FREDRICK</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Yes
it’s like that I guess</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">(Pause)</span></i><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">But
won’t she come soon</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">NURSE</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">(Looks at her watch)</span></i><span lang="EN-GB"></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Yes
she’ll probably come </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">soon
now</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">FREDRICK</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">(Troubled)</span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Is
it taking a longer time than usual</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">NURSE</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">(<i>Draws it out</i>)</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">No</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">FREDRICK</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">(Looks at her sceptically)</span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Are
you certain</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">NURSE</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Maybe
it’s taken a little longer</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">It’s
taken a bit of time</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">(Short pause)</span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">But
that isn’t unusual</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">These
examinations</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">can
often take time</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">You
know </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">the
doctors are often busy</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">FREDRICK</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">I
know</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">NURSE</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">But
tonight</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">it’s
been quiet so far</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">She’ll
probably come soon</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">(The quotation is from Jon Fosse, <i>Plays One</i>, London: Oberon Books, 2002,
pp. 265 f. The translation is by Louis Muinzer. It may be noticed that the
lines do not have punctuation marks.)</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>If
one were to try to understand what the characters are saying as an attempt at acquiring
and conveying information it would all seem hopelessly bewildered. What exactly
would it mean for “something like this” to happen “often” or not so “often”?
How often is “often”, how soon is “soon”? Does the nurse have any concrete
grounds for saying that Agnes will be back soon? She offers an explanation of
why the process might take longer (“the doctors are often busy”) but
immediately takes it back (“tonight it’s been quiet so far”). </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>(There’s
the same kind of ambivalence in the doctor telling Fredrick to prepare for the
worst yet keep his hopes up: </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">It can be all right</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">this sort of thing</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">But </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">well to be frank</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">the chances aren’t
so great)</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Fredrick’s
questions seek reassurance rather than information, and the nurse tries to
offer it. Their remarks have something of the character of poetry or song. The
dialogue brings to mind Wittgenstein’s remark (<i>Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology</i>, Vol.<span> </span>I, § 888):</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">The way music
speaks. Don’t forget that even though a poem is framed in the language of
information, it is not employed in the language game of information….</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Verbal language contains a strong
musical element. (A sigh, the modulation of tone for a question, for an
announcement, for longing; all the countless <i>gestures </i><span> </span>in the verbal
cadences.)</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">One could imagine a culture in which,
rather than ask and answer questions, the participants in this kind of
interaction played pieces of music for one another, or together. Of course, <i>what</i> they played would vary with the
situation.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">The interest of this, to me, is that Fosse
brings to the fore aspects of human conversation that tend to be overlooked in
accounts of language and meaning. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Paul
Grice, famously, defined speaker’s meaning as follows:</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">“A meant<sub>NN
</sub>something by x” is (roughly) equivalent to “A intended the utterance of x
to produce some effect in an audience by means of the recognition of this
intention; and we may add that to ask what A meant is to ask for a
specification of the intended effect. (“Meaning”, originally in <i>Philosophical Review</i> 66 (1957))</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">(“Meaning<sub>NN</sub>” – “nonnatural
meaning” - stands for cases in which somebody means this or that <i>by </i>something, as opposed to cases of
“natural” – i.e. roughly causal meaning – as when we say “These spots mean
measles”.)</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>One
type of case Grice considers is “an utterance [which], if it qualifies at all
as meaning<sub>NN </sub>something, will be of a descriptive or informative
kind”, in which case the attitude to be produced “will be a cognitive one, for
example, a belief.” When the nurse says, “she’ll probably come soon now”, then,
is she attempting to produce a certain belief (which belief exactly?) in
Fredrick? But even if we take it that that is not what she is doing, can we
really understand her words except through reference to the practice of
conveying information? Her words are “framed in the language of information”
(and that’s what enables us to understand them) but they are not “employed in
the language game of information” (nor do we take them to be).</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>Similarly,
we might ask: in Searlian terms, what is the illocutionary force of the nurse’s
lines? Are they assertives, thus counting “as an undertaking to the effect that
[the proposition uttered] represents an actual state of affairs”? </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">J. L. Austin was impressively sensitive to
word nuances, not so much to the kinds of speakings there are. Philosophers of
language like Grice, Austin or Searle are apt to look at the variety of human
forms of linguistic interaction through a grid pattern imposed, I believe, by a
tendency to model speech on written language – or perhaps we should say: on the
kind of language we were taught to produce at school, with complete and
grammatically consistent subject-predicate sentences and clearly indicated
references, each sentence having been constructed for a distinct purpose. (For
an exception, see Charles Taylor on the expressive use of speech, “Theories of
Meaning”, in his collection <i>Human Agency
and Language</i>.)</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">When M. Jourdain
in Molière’s <i>The Bourgeois Gentleman </i>is
told that unknowingly he has been speaking prose all his life I am not so sure
that was accurate. The idea of written prose shapes our ways of looking at
speech, it influences the way we actually speak in various contexts, but many
of our interchanges are no closer to written prose than they are to poetry. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span>We
are all familiar with conversations like that quoted above, yet philosophers are
inclined to ignore them in thinking about language. The speakers’ lines have an
obvious role in the interchange. We can well imagine the sort of line that
would be out of place in the context. Yet the words are not used instrumentally
in the sense of being deliberately chosen with a specific aim in mind. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">Wittgenstein writes, in <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>, Part II
ix:</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">79. ---- Is it
so surprising that I use the same expression in different games? And sometimes,
as it were, even in between the games?</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">80. And do I
always talk with very definite purpose? – And is what I say senseless because I
don’t?</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB">A playwright like Jon Fosse can make us notice
what lies between the language games. </span></span></span></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-22651418031956807122015-10-06T13:32:00.000+03:002015-10-06T13:32:30.810+03:00NORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW, Special issue on Wittgenstein and forms of lifeThe Nordic Wittgenstein Review, published by the NWS, has published its
<br />first ever Special Issue, edited by Danièle Moyal-Sharrock, Piergiorgio
<br />Donatelli and Sandra Laugier in collaboration with the present editors
<br />of NWR.
<br />
<br />It's open access, as always.
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/view/NWR%20Special%20Issue%202015">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/view/NWR%20Special%20Issue%202015</a>
<br />
<br />Best wishes,
<br />Yrsa Neuman as the ed-in-chief
<br />Anne-Marie Soendergaard Christensen & Martin Gustafsson, editors
<br />
<br />PS. Submissions to NWR:
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/about/submissions#onlineSubmissions">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/about/submissions#onlineSubmissions</a>
<br />---
<br />
<br />PLEASE DO CIRCULATE
<br />
<br />Note from the Editors
<br />Daniele Moyal-Sharrock 0
<br />
<br />Forms of Life
<br />Peter Hacker 1-20
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3320/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3320/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Wittgenstein on Forms of Life, Patterns of Life, and Ways of Living
<br />Daniele Moyal-Sharrock 21-42
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3362/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3362/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Forms of Life, Forms of Reality
<br />Piergiorgio Donatelli 43-62
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3374/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3374/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Voice as Form of Life and Life Form
<br />Sandra Laugier 63-82
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3364/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3364/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Tractarian Form as the Precursor to Forms of Life
<br />Chon Tejedor 83-109
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3358/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3358/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Mathematics and Forms of Life
<br />Severin Schroeder 111-130
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3357/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3357/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />“If Some People Looked Like Elephants and Others Like Cats”:
<br />Wittgenstein on Understanding Others and Forms of Life
<br />Constantine Sandis 131-153
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3372/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3372/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Elucidating Forms of Life. The Evolution of a Philosophical Tool <br />
Anna Boncompagni 155-175
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3319/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/3319/pdf</a>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-58765180705361064072015-09-15T19:19:00.002+03:002015-09-16T15:42:25.291+03:00Recent doctoral dissertations at Åbo Akademi<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Recent doctoral dissertations at Åbo Akademi</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">During the last academic year three doctoral dissertations in philosophy were defended at my old department at Åbo Akademi, Åbo/Turku, Finland:</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Ylva Gustafsson, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I</i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">nterpersonal understanding
and theory of mind </span></i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(19 September, 2014)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Summary: The claim that a “theory of mind”,
is a fundamental cognitive capacity that grounds human social life is popular
within both modern philosophical and psychological theorising on interpersonal
understanding. This claim surfaces in evolutionary psychology, in theories of
child development, in theories of autism as well as in philosophy on emotions
and in moral philosophy. The aim of this work is to scrutinise certain
psychological and philosophical theories on interpersonal understanding that
are connected with empirical research. The author argues that the theories as
well as the empirical research are often based on problematic philosophical
assumptions about interpersonal understanding. The assumptions shape the
theories and also shape the way empirical research is designed and the way results are
interpreted.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">For the full text, see <a href="https://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/98819">https://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/98819</a></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Antony Fredriksson, </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Vision, Image,
Record – A Cultivation of the Visual Field </span></i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">(9 January, 2015)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Summary: The first part of
this thesis delivers a genealogy of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">image</i>.
It chronicles how the concepts of image, vision and the self evolved in
relation to one another in a specific scientific and philosophical context,
starting with the early Renaissance, which saw the invention of the
perspectivist painting, up to the birth of Positivism and the photographic
image. This development entailed a form of reductionism in which “the self” –
the role of human psychology, our judgement, our attention and our will – was
sidestepped. Within this intellectual tradition there is only a short step,
from the understanding of the image as a representation of three-dimensional
space on a two-dimensional surface, to the idea of the image as a transparent
picture, a window towards the world. By taking this short step one would easily
lose sight of the role of the self in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">practices</i>
of making and viewing images. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In the second part the author
offers an alternative to the intellectual tradition described in the first
part. The idea of depiction as a neutral “view from nowhere” would support a
skeptical attitude towards communication, dialogue and human testimony, and
therefore our reliance upon each other and consequently our reliance on ourselves.
What was forgotten in this understanding of the image as a view from nowhere,
was that the image is an aid in the task cultivating our visual field, an aid
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sharing</i> our views. Due to this
function of sharing, the image becomes a guide as we find our orientation in
this world. I might stand beside another person and see what she sees, but I do
not necessarily know her reading of it. The image adds a dimension to this
relation, since it does not only show me what the other sees. When an image
works properly it also shows <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">how </i>that
other person sees, and thus the image becomes an agent.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">While the present thesis combines
the fields of philosophical epistemology, history of science and visual
studies, its main interest is philosophical. It engages with philosophical
misconceptions of depiction as a mimetic art form, of knowledge as
domestication and of perception as reception of data.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">For the full text, see <a href="http://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/103039">http://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/103039</a>
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mari Lindman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Work
and Non-Work : On Work and Meaning </span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(8 May, 2015)</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Summary: It may seem self-evident that
employment is crucial to a happy life and that job creation is a central
societal concern. However, this dissertation suggests that work is neutralized
when it is understood simply as a valuable societal asset or as an individual
life project, while its existential, ethical and political significance in a
specific life situation is ignored. One example of such neutralization is when
the importance of work is reduced to the importance of “having a job”, whatever
its practical content or purposes. To challenge such neutralizations, the
author looks at the tension within the conceptions of work (necessity, hard
work and self-realization are three examples) which underlie them. The danger
of such neutralization is that political and existential worries about work and
the working life are swept under the rug. The book aims to repoliticize work by
looking at it as an essentially contested concept. The author suggests that
important aspects of work are revealed within such contestations of the role of
work in our lives and that tensions can be a fruitful point of departure for
resisting neutralizations of work. All chapters are structured around dialogues
with critical accounts of work, including those of Hannah Arendt, André Gorz,
Kathi Weeks, Simone Weil, Raimond Gaita, Karl Marx and Richard Sennett. What
does it mean to say that society has been invaded by necessity? What does it
mean to imagine a society beyond wage labor? Is it a utopia or a dystopia to
think about work as a limitless activity? What is at stake when work becomes a
commodity on the market? What are the hazards of fragmentation of work?</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">For the full text, see <a href="http://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/104317">http://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/104317</a>
</span><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></div>
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<![endif]-->Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-1598755237954627192015-09-14T10:07:00.000+03:002015-09-14T10:07:23.726+03:00Standing Before a SentenceYrsa Neuman is defending her doctoral thesis in philosophy at Åbo Akademi on Friday, 18 September (in Auditorium Arken, Fabriksgatan 2, Åbo/Turku), at 12 noon. The opponent (external examiner) is Dr Kevin Cahill, Bergen.<br />
<br />
Short summary:<br />
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Standing Before a Sentence</div>
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Moore’s paradox and a perspective from within
language</div>
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<br /></div>
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Ludwig Wittgenstein once wrote to G.E. Moore
that he had
stirred up a philosophical wasps’ nest with his paradox,
associated with the
sentence “I believe it’s raining and it’s not raining”. The
problem is that it
would be odd for a speaker to assert this thought about herself,
although it
could be true about her, and although the sentence is well-formed
and not
contradictory.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Making use of the notion of a sentence having
sense in a
context of significant use (inspired by Ludwig Wittgenstein), the
author
explores the responses of some of the “wasps” who responded to the
paradox, and
the background of their reactions. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="background: lightgrey; mso-highlight: lightgrey;">By
using the metaphor of philosophizing from within language rather
than outside
of language the author explores what she calls “the user
perspective” on
philosophical problems. In this investigation, Moore’s paradox
functions as a
test case, by which the author elucidates differences in view of
the role and
powers of philosophical terminology.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
The contribution of this work is
meta-philosophical in being
concerned with philosophical method. Its point of departure is in
the
therapeutic strand of the tradition after the later Wittgenstein.<br />
<br />
The full text of the thesis is found here: <br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/113681/neuman_yrsa.pdf?sequence=2">http://www.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/113681/neuman_yrsa.pdf?sequence=2</a>Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-26469097905083299012015-07-25T17:21:00.000+03:002015-07-25T17:21:10.602+03:00NORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW 4 (2015), No 1, available online<a href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/current">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/current</a>Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-61438661823844312822015-06-19T09:05:00.000+03:002015-06-19T09:05:42.763+03:00“An attitude towards a machine”<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">The
British film <i>Ex Machina</i>, written and
directed by Alex Garland, is an intelligent dramatization of the issue of artificial
intelligence. Caleb, a young programmer working for Bluebook (the counterpart
of Google in the film’s universe), is invited to spend a week in the company
owner’s secluded refuge in the wilderness. It turns out that Caleb is to
conduct an enhanced version of the Turing test on an advanced robot, Ava,
constructed by the owner, Nathan. Ava is designed as a female. If she can get Caleb
convinced that she loves him, he will take her to have a consciousness, and
thus she will have passed the test. Of course, Caleb knows from the start that
Ava is an artefact, which raises the stakes. I shan’t give the plot away for those
who haven’t yet seen the film. </span></span>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">Ex Machina </span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">might be suitable for a
film and philosophy course. It gives plenty of food for thought. There is ingenious
play with various degrees of embodiedness - to travesty Wittgenstein, Ava’s body
is the worst picture of her soul (<i>Philosophical
Investigations¸ Philosophy of Psychology – A Fragment, </i>§ 25).The erotic
tension gives a wholly different twist to the intellectualist preconception of
the original Turing setup. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">Standing before a Jackson Pollock
painting, Nathan explains that the greatest difficulty is how to recapture a similar
effect of controlled spontaneity in the robot. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>There are, by the way, some
intriguing allusions to Wittgenstein – maybe as a gesture to his grappling with
the problems of souls and automata (e.g. <i>Philosophical
Investigations </i>§ 420). Apart from the search engine Bluebook which is explicitly
said to be named after the Wittgenstein text, a copy of Gustav Klimt’s portrait
of Margaret Stonborough-Wittgenstein (Ludwig’s sister), posing erect, cool, composed,
is prominently displayed – in the room in which the female dresses and faces of
robots are stored. (Gender roles is also a theme of the film that might be explored.)
And on one occasion, Ava shows Caleb a doodle she has made and asks “What is
this?” (an allusion to <i>Culture and Value,
</i>p. 24). Caleb then teaches her to draw.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>Like virtually all stories involving
artificial intelligence, this film remains a fairy tale along the lines of Frankenstein
or Pygmalion – not a prediction of a possible development. The missing link in all
stories about artificially created consciousness is the question how a human creation
is supposed to be endowed with <i>a life. </i>The
real <i>deus ex machina </i>here is Ava’s supposed
desire to survive. But where does her desire come from? Or rather: where does the
machine’s<i> </i>disposition to secure its
own continued functioning come from?</span></span></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com27tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-49136734505259225382015-04-12T10:28:00.000+03:002015-04-13T07:45:06.320+03:00What is understanding a sentence?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
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<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; line-height: 150%;">Michael
Johnson gives the following argument for compositionality in his article on the
<i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:</i></span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">We are capable of understanding a
very large number—perhaps an infinite number—of sentences that we have never
heard before. … </span></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">If we
understand the meaning of a new sentence whose meaning we haven’t been
specifically taught before, it must be that we can work out its meaning from
information available to us when we hear that sentence and other things that we
have already learned.</span></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">Suppose for a
moment that English is a compositional language, in the sense that the meaning
of a sentence of English can be computed (worked out) from its syntactic
structure and the meanings of its morphemes. This would explain how one could
understand a novel utterance [shouldn’t this be “sentence”?] such as <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">There is a cauliflower-shaped
spacecraft from Saturn on television</span></i>. English speakers who have
never learned the meaning of this sentence specifically have nevertheless
learned the meanings of each of the words in it: <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">cauliflower</span></i>, <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">shape</span></i>, the past tense morpheme -<i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">ed</span></i>, <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">spacecraft</span></i>, and so forth.
Furthermore, part of mastering a language involves acquiring the ability to
parse sentences of that language, that is, to figure out their syntactic
structure—for example, figuring out that <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">cauliflower-shaped</span></i>
modifies <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">spacecraft</span></i>,
but <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">on television</span></i>
doesn’t modify <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">Saturn</span></i>.
Thus if English is compositional, English speakers have all they need to
understand novel English sentences they have never encountered before—provided
those sentences don’t contain unfamiliar words. (Michael Johnson,
“<a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/composit/#SH2a">Compositionality</a>”
, <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy¸ </i>accessed
11 April, 2015)</span></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">This is one version of a familiar line of argument. However,
it doesn’t seem clear to me what precisely it is supposed to prove. I had never
heard the sentence, “<i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-style: normal;">There is a cauliflower-shaped
spacecraft from Saturn on television” until I read this article. I immediately recognized
it as an English sentence, and I suppose I can say I understood it: it didn’t
bewilder me, I understood how it was meant to be taken. (This was partly due,
no doubt, to the context in which I encountered the sentence, as an instance of
“sentences-understood-though-never-before-heard”.) </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-style: normal;">I could,
as it were, identify the place of the sentence in the language calculus. Or we
might say, I can state its truth-conditions (“the sentence p is true if and
only if p”). But considered as an achievement, it seems to me, this is tautologous.
Mastery of the system gives me mastery of the system; the question, however, is
what enables us to reach beyond the language cage. After all, compositionality I
take it is supposed to explain how we are able to </span></i><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">communicate</span></i><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-style: normal;"> by
means of combinations of words we have never encountered before, and all its seems
to explain is how we are able to recognize combinations of words as the combinations
of words they are. Suggesting that understanding a sentence takes us beyond
mere recognition because it enables us to tell what the truth-conditions of the
sentence are is no help: for one thing, this is true only if truth-conditions are
understood as tautologically conveyed by the sentence itself. (“’Snow is white’
is true if and only if snow is white.”</span></i><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"> </span></b></span><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">)</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"> Second, if I don’t understand
what the speaker is up to I don’t know how
he means for his words to be related to the question of truth: is he trying to
tell me something, musing on a formulation, telling a joke, composing a line
for a science fiction story, planning the interior design of a room (“On top of
the television set there will be this funny-shaped spacecraft-looking thing.”)?<i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-style: normal;"></span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-style: normal;"> In fact, the condition that I must know
the words in the sentence in order to understand it – in this sense – seems gratuitous,
</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">as long as I know what grammatical categories they
belong to. Thus, to cite a famous example, while I have no idea what a runcible
is, I have no difficulty understanding that the sentence “Smith kept a runcible
at Abbotsford” is true if and only if Smith did indeed keep a runcible at
Abbotsford. Why should my familiarity with the words have a bearing on my ability
to extract the truth-conditions from the sentence?</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"> The idea seems to be that compositionality can explain the
mysterious leap from simply hearing a sequence of words <i><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif; font-style: normal;">to
a state called “understanding the sentence …”, a state which, although it does
not yet tell me what I am to do with the words spoken, yet puts me in a
position to deal with them wherever I might encounter them. And I doubt whether
any such state needs to be postulated.</span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-43182399058178916032014-12-29T19:06:00.001+02:002014-12-29T19:06:14.945+02:00“Marriage is between a man and a woman”<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">As in many countries before it, the
Finnish parliament recently passed a law making same-sex marriage possible,
based on a citizens’ initiative (this was the first time a citizens’ initiative
succeeded in becoming law). The margins were narrow, there was serious
opposition to the law in several parties, most of all among the Christian
Democrats. (The law may yet be overturned by the next parliament). </span></span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;">A
recurrent argument, or slogan, of the opponents of the reform, was “Marriage is
between a man and a woman”. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>I
find this an interesting formulation. It is hard to pin down how it is to be understood.
Even so, I think it would be wrong to conclude that it is a meaningless claim,
or to argue that it shows that opponents of the reform are thoughtless. This is
so even though I do not agree with them (I was one of those who signed the
initiative). In political debates one should resist the temptation to think that
logic is on one’s side. Thinking that it is is (normally) an indication that one
has misconstrued one’s opponents’ position.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>Clearly,
the intended force of “Marriage is between a man and a woman” can’t be that of
a definition. The fact that a linguistic convention exists does not preclude going
against it. (Legal terminology, in particular, is not necessarily bound by common
usage.) Furthermore, as a description of an existing linguistic convention the
claim would not even be true. The word “marriage” has traditionally been employed
in speaking about polygamous relations. In fact, one would be unable to explain
what “polygamy” means without allowing for the conceptual possibility of a marriage
involving something other than one man and one woman. And, of course, the word is
now being employed in speaking about same-sex marriages with regard to all
those countries in which the practice has been instituted. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>(Neither,
of course, can the point simply be that of asserting a fact of history: “up
until now, marriage in our culture has always been between a man and a woman.”
Using that as an argument would entail that change in itself is a bad thing, which would of course be
nonsense.) </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>It
may seem more plausible to interpret the claim as saying “Marriage <i>ought </i>only to be between a man and a
woman”. But that reading would hardly satisfy those who advance the claim,
since it would then reduce it to an expression of opinion. It would be a way of
marking where the speaker stands, but that by itself entails acknowledging that
other stands are possible. In other words, it would push the position out into
the arena of argument and counter-argument, but I do not believe that is true
to the intention of those who voice the claim: they wish to claim a sort of necessity
for their position, they consider the supporters of same-sex marriage to be not
so much mistaken as confused. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>It
should be pointed out that opinions among the opponents to the law are quite
varied. Some of them would grant the same legal rights to registered same-sex
couples as to married couples; in effect, they simply want to reserve the word “marriage”
for heterosexual couples. (This is not to say that the disagreement is simply
verbal for them.) This is the position, for instance, of the Finnish president,
Sauli Niinistö (who can voice his opinion but has no power over legislation). </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>(At
the same time Niinistö, like many others, does slip into argument, claiming
that the reform should have been resisted because the idea of same-sex marriage
offends people’s sensibilities. One should note, first of all, that this does
not explain what is meant by the slogan “Marriage is between a man and a woman”.
It is rather an argument for the position that marriage <i>ought to be</i> only for a man and a woman. One should also note that
this argument has a false ring of neutrality about it. To say that a practice
offends somebody’s sensibility is to bestow some degree of legitimacy on the
reaction – as distinct from saying that a way of behaving irritates or angers or
disgusts people – the latter would not be adduced as grounds for outlawing a
practice. Again, most of us would frown upon someone who said, for instance, that
interracial marriage might offend people’s sensibilities; we wouldn’t consider that
an acceptable way of describing people’s resentment. Clearly those who invoke people’s
sensibilities in connection with same-sex marriage consider the negative attitude
acceptable, whether or not they share it. --- In some countries appeals are
made to the Bible, but this would not carry much weight in most European
countries. Aside from parties like the Christian Democrats in Finland, there is
a large consensus that religion and public decision-making should be kept separate.)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>What
makes the proposition “Marriage is between a man and a woman” philosophically
interesting is that it shows that people may say things that do not fit into
any of the standard categories philosophers commonly use in classifying
utterances. It is neither the expression of a linguistic convention, nor a statement
of empirical fact, nor a normative claim. One might say it is an attempt to express
the <i>essence </i>of marriage, to say what
a <i>real marriage </i>is. Some people will agree
and others won’t. There seems not to be any argumentative “solution” to the disagreement.
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua",serif;"><span> </span>(In
this respect I see an analogy here with the disagreement about capital
punishment. Some people think, as I do, that it is a form of murder, others think
of it as a form of punishment that may occasionally be justified. But I do not think
there is anything that the latter have overlooked. They are not victims of
sloppy thinking. They are simply wrong – that is my conviction.)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-6404606166189528992014-12-16T20:24:00.002+02:002014-12-16T20:24:57.387+02:00NORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW 3 (2) 2014 available online <a href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/current">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/issue/current</a>Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-83722312623936216172014-09-25T20:10:00.000+03:002014-09-25T20:10:02.730+03:00We make our own fog<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Hugh Knott sums up the disagreement between him and me
(see <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/09/on-philosophical-bewilderment.html">my previous blog entry</a>) as follows:</span></span>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">you seem to
be assuming that the <b>only</b> context in
which “confusion” arises in philosophy is when we are drawn into “going wrong”
in the use of expressions when reflecting philosophically. So, using your
analogy, my lack of clarity whilst looking at two yonder buildings may be
expressed in my judging that the one building is in front of the other when in
fact it is the other way about—I have gone wrong. Another situation might be
where I am looking at a distant building and somebody asks “what is it like,
what kind of roof and windows does it have?”, and I reply “I cannot tell you it
is surrounded by fog”. When the fog lifts, I can tell him. Here nothing has
“gone wrong”, there has been no error. I call this getting a clear view “in its
own right” to distinguish it from the case where there is actual error. </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">(This image, as Hugh suggests, is in line with <i>Philosophical Investigations </i>§ 5, where
Wittgenstein speaks about “how much the general concept of the meaning of a
word surrounds the working of language with a haze which makes clear vision
impossible”.)</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">For my part, I believe the image of being in a fog is
a good starting point for trying to sort out our differences. When a building
is covered by a fog there may be certain things we can’t judge about; or we may
judge with less certainty than otherwise – or we may, of course, make erroneous
judgments, maybe we come to see the building as altogether different than it is
(or we judge that there is no building there). <span> </span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">To my mind what these shortcomings have in common is
more important than what distinguishes them. </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Where does the fog come from? We are here talking
about the difficulty of commanding a clear view of the workings of our
language, whether more generally or in some specific aspect. But this is not a thing
we are prevented from acquiring by some external circumstance. We are
thoroughly acquainted with the workings of our language <i>in practice. </i>If we have difficulty getting a clear view of it, it
is a difficulty of our own making - unlike a real fog. </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">I would imagine that Hugh and I are at one thus far. Where
we may differ is on the point that, as I see it, the interest now turns to our
own ways of thinking: I feel the need to reflect on <i>what keeps us from commanding</i> a clear view. I should like to say:
unless we were tempted by misleading analogies, illusory pretensions, a craving
for generality, etc. there would be no fog. This makes me unsure about the
notion of a clear view “in its own right”. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Hugh writes: </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Philosophical reflection is not in any case something that only goes on
within the community of philosophers (i.e. the academics), but pops up in
peoples’ lives all over the place. “To imagine a language is to imagine a form
of life” so that (reflective) confusions “within the language” are (if they are
not merely trivial ones) confusions within our lives…</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Yes, of course: “the use of an expression” already
embodies a chunk of life, so there’s no getting clear about its use which is
not at the same time a getting clear about its role in life. The reflective confusions
of philosophers and non-philosophers may or may not spill over into their lives
as actually lived. </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-59725803971586251022014-09-10T20:07:00.001+03:002014-09-25T11:12:11.176+03:00On philosophical bewilderment: an interchange<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">With Hugh Knott’s permission I publish an
interchange between us, arising out of Hugh’s article “Rush Rhees on
Wittgenstein and ‘What Language Is’” (<i>Philosophical
Investigations</i>, July 2014), as well as my previous blog entries, <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/07/rhees-and-knott-on-what-language-is.html">http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/07/rhees-and-knott-on-what-language-is.html</a>
and <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/07/rhees-and-knott-on-importance-of.html">http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/07/rhees-and-knott-on-importance-of.html</a>.
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Hugh’s original remarks (HK) are in roman,
my responses (LH) in bold and Hugh’s rejoinders (HK2) in italic. Later on I’ll post
a blog reflecting on our disagreements.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) I think the difference comes down to
this. You say “The puzzles grow from a deep-rooted tendency to misunderstand
the uses of words like ‘mean’, ‘understand’, etc., etc., from a preconception
which prevents our getting a clear overview of the use”. So you distinguish
here between the tendency to misunderstand the uses of words <i>and</i> having a clear view of their use.
But you seem not to acknowledge the consequences of this distinction. For it’s
not clear to me from other things that you say that you accept that there can
be any such thing as “a clear overview of their use” in its own right, only a
coming to see that there is confusion if we want to use certain expressions in
certain ways. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH)<b>
My inclination is to say: in using some general expressions like “a clear view”
I have in mind a contrast: understanding what having a clear view amounts to
depends on some familiarity with the ways in which we are liable to go wrong.
(Cp: “can you see that building over there quite clearly?” – well, my response
to that would depend on your purpose in asking.) Hence I’d be suspicious about
talking about “a clear view <i>in its own
right”</i></b><i>. </i></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>Again
you seem to be assuming that the <b>only</b>
context in which “confusion” arises in philosophy is when we are drawn into “going
wrong” in the use of expressions when reflecting philosophically. So, using
your analogy, my lack of clarity whilst looking at two yonder buildings may be
expressed in my judging that the one building is in front of the other when in
fact it is the other way about—I have gone wrong. Another situation might be
where I am looking at a distant building and somebody asks “what is it like,
what kind of roof and windows does it have?”, and I reply “I cannot tell you it
is surrounded by fog”. When the fog lifts, I can tell tell him. Here nothing
has “gone wrong”, there has been no error. I call this getting a clear view “in
its own right” to distinguish it from the case where there is actual error. Somebody asks what is time? We use the term and
other temporal expressions all the time without trouble. When we try to reflect
on it we are all at sea. “All at sea”, “a fog surrounds its use” (I think
Wittgenstein says that somewhere), we feel disorientated, all of a sudden we
don’t know our way about. We may feel this effect without “going wrong” in any
particular way—which is not to say that we may not also “go wrong”. In practice
in philosophy these are no doubt run together, but I think the distinction is
real—which is my point throughout. I am not sure that you have said anything to
show that it is not real. </i></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH) <b>I
don’t recognize myself in the phrase “confusion <i>if we want to use</i> certain expressions in certain ways”. I don’t
know how much store you’re laying by this formulation, but to my mind,
philosophical confusion doesn’t – primarily – arise in how people use
expressions, but in the account they’re inclined to give of their use. (Of
course, philosophers might try going on actually using expressions in
accordance with the way they’ve argued they’re actually used, or the way they
should - according to them - be used if we are to be attentive their real
meanings. But that is not the sort of case I have in mind.</b>) </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>It
is already understood that we are talking of the reflective situation—there has
never been any question that we are talking of error in our practical
employment of language. So my use of this phrase is to refer to the temptation
to use expressions in certain ways that arise when we reflect philosophically. It
seems perfectly legitimate to say that when we reflect in philosophy we “find
we want to use certain expressions in certain [i.e. confused] ways”. I am not
sure why you should think I intended this to refer to something arising within
daily use (you say something similar in your essay on Hacker—whereas I have
always taken it for granted that he is only ever talking about our reflections
on our concepts, unless he expressly states otherwise.)</i></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) Hence, we do not end up with a clear
view of their use—there is no reflective understanding of their use—only a
return to our use of them without the temptation to misunderstand them. I think
this is the espoused view that you share in common with the New
Wittgensteinians—although I do not think that this is adhered to in practice
since you all have a view of language which informs this attitude and indulge
in clarifications not related to any particular confusions.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB"> (LH)<b> “Particular confusions” is of course a
fairly loose notion. I should make clear that I don’t think philosophical
confusions are superficial or easy to disentangle. Nor does the urgency
normally lie in the need to disentangle <i>other</i>
people’s confusions (as you suggest in one place). On the contrary, the
challenge of doing philosophy comes from the fact that the confusions are
deeply entrenched within ourselves, and that we constantly keep sliding back
into them. Besides, I am not suggesting that the confusions in question are
limited in scope – I don’t mean to be dogmatically rejecting any form of
generality. </b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>I
agree that philosophy is primarily a matter of working on oneself rather than
on others. But in fact you do talk of the work of philosophers as responding to
“interlocutors”, i.e. other people, and as if this were the essential task of
the philosopher—which conforms with the idea of philosophy as therapy and the
philosopher as the therapist, e.g.:
(from your essay on Hacker) “Similarly, the type of clarification needed to
resolve a philosophical puzzle will depend on the nature of our interlocutor’s
bewilderment. Thus, we may have to discover what false analogies lead her
thinking astray…Where there are no confusions, there is nothing to be
clarified, hence no task for the philosopher to carry out.” This seems a pretty
clear statement of the “therapeutic” view of philosophy, as the philosopher as
the one who dishes out therapy to the lost souls—which is why I took it up in
my paper. I do not doubt that you may express your point differently elsewhere.</i></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH)<b>
On the one hand, a confusion often involves a whole range of connected words
(say, “speak”, “say”, “mean”, “understand”). On the other hand, some sources of
confusion may concern a whole range of words, as when we assume that to each
noun there must correspond an object or a state, to each verb an event or
process, etc. At the same time, such generic patterns of confusion tend to take
on their specific forms in the case of specific words (the ways we’re inclined
to misconstrue the use of the word “think” is not simply a reflection of its
being a verb, but of the specific demands we place on the word, e.g. we assume
the process or activity in question would have to be of a nature to explain why
thinking puts us in a better position to solve various problems, etc, this then
branches out to the idea that good thinking can be brought under a pattern
which can be conveyed through courses in formal logic or critical thinking,
etc: another extension of this confusion is when we are mystified by the
question whether animals actually think, which is in turn connected with the
idea that thinking is in essence a hidden process, etc.)</b>.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>I
certainly agree that surface grammatical forms are significantly responsible
for prompting confusion (though it is difficult to explain why, unless the way
we use expressions is already obscure in reflection for other reasons). When
you try to indicate here how the confusions then take more specific forms, you speak
of “the specific demands we place on the word”, but I am not quite clear about
how you are using this phrase. You say the problems with “think” are not
“simply a reflection of its being a verb”; but it looks as if you are still
saying that philosophical confusions do originate there but then grow out in
other ways. I know Wittgenstein started by blaming philosophical confusions on
the influence of surface grammar, but I think the sources of confusion are more
diverse than that. For example, what is the source of the idea that thinking is
in essence a hidden process? I think this has a lot to do with our tendency to
misinterpret subjective states (the “experience of meaning” for example or “I
know how green looks to me”, etc)—the way we react to our experiences with
words rather than the way we react to words. </i></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">In
characterising the confusion here, I would be inclined to express this by
saying that we end up with a confused idea/notion/concept of “hidden process”;
you might prefer to call this a confused use of the expression “inner
process”. My preference however remains with the former if only because it
keeps more present the connection with our lives as a whole, with our thinking—with
how we treat animals, with whether we live our lives in a belief in the
after-life, with our values, and so on.
Yes, the problems become manifest when we “reflect philosophically”, but
I don’t think one can drive a simple wedge between such reflection and living
our lives—which is what I think tends to happen if one gets stuck on expressing
philosophical confusion in terms of getting into a muddle over the operation of
various signs (or even groups of them) when we reflect on their use. Philosophical
reflection is not in any case something that only goes on within the community
of philosophers (i.e. the academics), but pops up in peoples’ lives all over
the place. “To imagine a language is to imagine a form of life” so that
(reflective) confusions “within the language” are (if they are not merely
trivial ones) confusions within our lives and so can only be set properly in
context using the range of concepts that characterise life as a whole: thought,
concept, belief, and so on. (And, by the way, with reference to your remark
above, I think you do have to keep these cases in mind when reflecting on the
nature of philosophy generally.) </span></i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) It seems that you won’t allow that
there might be an intellectual curiosity about our uses of our expressions—a
curiosity that might be satisfied by reflection on the many typical contexts in
which we use them—that is not prompted by finding oneself tempted to confuse
the expression <i>in some particular way</i>.
Rather it is prompted by the fact that when we do try to reflect on them, their
use simply isn’t clear—whether we are tempted to misconstrue them in some
particular way or not. But I don’t see that you have provided any grounds for
such a limitation. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH)<b>The
way in which I perceive philosophical problems is not a matter to be proved,
not a theory with applications; rather it is an outlook, a reflection on how I
understand what philosophers are up to (those from whom I feel I’m learning how
to do philosophy) and what I myself am trying to do. The worth of this activity
– or its lack of worth – is to be shown in the doing and only there. If there’s
something I miss out on, I should wish to see how that comes out in individual
cases</b>. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) And I don’t think the limitation you
want to impose here is to be found in Wittgenstein, since for much of the time
he is not dealing with muddles with particular expressions but describing our
language-games. In <i>Zettel</i> 412
Wittgenstein remarks “Am I doing child psychology?—I am making a connexion
between the concept of teaching and the concept of meaning”—which I think is
the same as wanting to obtain a “synoptic view” of their connection(s). He is
not saying that he is dealing only with particular ways of muddling “teaching”
and “meaning”.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH) <b>Again,
the way I see it the point of these exercises lies in the (mostly implicit)
contrast with confused ways of thinking about language learning (e.g.
Augustine)</b>. </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>Taking
these two points together, I take it that you are saying that the only interest
you have in such observations is in bringing out that if someone is inclined to
reflect on language learning as, e.g., Augustine does, he is confused. Your
intellectual curiosity is satisfied by coming to see the confusion in what he
was saying. So you do not see coming to a “synoptic view of our concepts” as
being of any intrinsic interest, you wouldn’t see the point of it. As I said
earlier, I do not see anything wrong with limiting one’s interest in philosophy
if one chooses. What does concern me is the implication that if one does have
an interest in the “synoptic view” or of “seeing the world aright” to use
Wittgenstein’s earlier phrase, one is in some confusion (or perhaps that you
are just bewildered by the very idea of it). This is suggested in the first of
these responses where the implication is that the alternative to the point as
you see it is the confused idea of proving something, or arriving a theory with
applications. Whereas seeking the synoptic view is none of these things—it is
for example the kind of thing you do in the passage I quoted below, and finding
that of interest apart from any particular confusion. </i></span></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">If I
may take analogy. We come to know our way about a forest (language) by
practice. Wherever we want to go, we just go there as a matter of course
without reflection. If we are asked to reflect on how we get about or how the
forest is laid out (philosophical reflection) we get confused. One type of
confusion is where we are tempted irresistibly to give a confused account: we
say we turn left here when we turn right, we say this bit is close to that bit,
when they are far apart, etc. But there is also another type of confusion or
bewilderment. We are asked about the layout of the forest and we reply: I
couldn’t tell you, I wouldn’t know where to start, I learnt my way about just
by going, by following others, I’ve never had to explain or have an overview of
it. Here there is no error, just the fog that descends when we try to reflect. </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">But
you don’t seem to want to recognise the second type; for if you did, you would
have to recognise that the interest in these observations may not only be by
contrast with the temptations to “go wrong” but by contrast with what one might
call the state of reflective ignorance of our life with language. </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) But at this point we can also begin to
see that just construing what which we want to get a clearer view of as “the
uses of particular expressions” is too limited a way of looking at it. You can
if you like say that what Wittgenstein is saying here is the same as wanting to
get clear of the use of the expressions “teaching” and “meaning”, but for the
reasons, I give in my paper, and which I find throughout Rhees, I think this is
misleading since it makes it look as if the issues at stake are merely
linguistic or semantic (i.e. are not connected with how we think). More
especially it tends to blur the distinction expressed most succinctly by Rhees
where he distinguishes the expressions that cause problems in philosophy from
the likes of “sitting down” by saying that the </span><span lang="EN-GB">meaning of expressions like “language” “lie
in the language-game in which we use them, etc.” This shifts the attention from
the particular expressions to describing the language-games (yes, in all their
variety). This is at the same time to get an overview of the place of language
in our lives, our form of life and our ways of thinking—which is why I believe
it is more informative to call this trying to get a better understanding of
“what language is”, or of the <i>concept</i>
language, than just trying to sort out some problems with the use of certain
expressions. This reflection is difficult not just because we have seep-seated
tendency to confuse certain words, but something deeper still, and on which
that tendency is rooted, namely an intrinsic difficulty of reflecting on what
“lies in the language-game” (and which itself explains why we are so easily
misled about particular expressions—which is otherwise rather difficult to
explain). </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH) <b>Maybe this tendency comes close to what I
was describing above (generic patterns of confusion)?</b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>I think it comes close to it but that there
is still a critical difference. I don’t think it is just about patterns of
confusion. I think Rhees’s point is that we don’t learn the use of “language”
in a way comparable with “sitting down”. As a result we have ways of getting
confused or unclear about “language” that are not parallel with “sitting down”.
And getting clear about how we use it involves different kinds of approaches,
and to such an extent that I begins to become unhelpful to call this just a
matter of getting clear about the use of the expression “language”—getting
clear about the “rule” we are following in using it as one might speak in this
way about “sitting down”. It’s about getting a clear view of the different
language-games, how they belong together, how they belong to our lives (how
they are what they are in the ways they belong to our lives). </i></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) In
responding to Rhees’s notion of “understanding what language is” you refer
immediately and exclusively to Wittgenstein’s response to questions like “what
the mind is…”. Wittgenstein’s criticisms of “traditional metaphysics” were
indeed directed against such questions insofar as the attempted answers took
the form of invoking a supervening set of concepts devised by the metaphysician
to “explain” the mind, thinking, etc. That there might be such a set of
concepts is an illusion. Wittgenstein’s opposition to <i>explanation</i> is, I believe, to be understood in these terms. He
replaced this with the “internal” elucidation of our concepts, that is by
tracing the connections of sense between the concepts embedded in our
language/form of life. His remark about psychology, which I refer to above, is
an explicit expression of this. There is no reason why this should not also be
called an investigation into the natures of these things or of what things are,
just as long as it is clear <i>in context</i>
that this is what the philosopher is doing—which I believe it is in
Wittgenstein, Rhees, and, dare I say it, myself. I can’t see any grounds have
been provided for finding this extension of the notion of investigating “what
kind of thing anything is”, or the natures of things, “bewildering”.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">By the
way I don’t think Rhees was accusing Wittgenstein of not taking seriously
enough the question of what language is in favour of concern merely for the
confusions of particular expressions. Indeed he is saying that the question of
what language is is precisely Wittgenstein’s project. His criticisms of
Wittgenstein are mainly that he focussed on some aspects of what language is to
the expense of others.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">I also
don’t recognise at all in Rhees your idea that he thinks there is some “<i>one</i> confusion bound up with the question
what language is”. You link this with the question of a supposed “bewilderment
shared by us all and inevitable”. And you go on to say that you don’t’ know
what to make of it. He is not <i>of course</i>
(& neither am I) talking of a bewilderment that plagues our practice of
speaking but in <i>reflection</i>. And it
seems to me that in fact you are expressing the same (or analogous) point when
you speak of a “deep-rooted tendency to misunderstand the use of words…”—which
I take it you too assume is virtually universal—“shared by us all and
inevitable”. The difference is that I think Rhees has a richer understanding of
this bewilderment, as I have tried to explain above. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">This
brings us back to you own practice. I find it difficult to find much in your
writings that I would want to call a concern just with confusions over the uses
of particular expressions. The vast majority of your writings are to do
generally with “what language is”. In your response to my paper you remark:</span></span></span></div>
<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div class="MsoQuote">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">‘I write “learning to speak means learning to
express oneself by means of words” (p.122). Well, to be sure this is a
general observation, but these words hardly express some deep insight into what
it means to be a speaker.</span></span></span></div>
</blockquote>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">On their
own, of course they do not. But I quoted them because I think (and still think)
they signal the general direction of your thinking. Indeed you capture your
overall intent straightaway with your use of the phrase “insight into what <span style="color: #222222;">means to be a speaker”. I take it that this is what you think
we need to understand or get clear about in philosophy. </span>But now I want
to ask What is the difference between asking “what it means to be a speaker”
and asking “what language is”?—none as far as I can see. Here is an example of
an observation that does express “some deep insight into what it means to be a
speaker”:</span></span></span></div>
<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div class="Quote6">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">The notion of a primitive expression, then
involves a peculiar kind of mutuality or interdependence: regarding something
as a primitive expression of pain (in the primary case) is itself a primitive
reaction to the expression. In fact, the interdependence goes further: for
someone to see another person’s reaction as a reaction to the pain expressed by
the third party–or by the observer himself—is in turn, in the primary case, a
primitive response to that response, or rather, to the situation consisting of
the sufferer’s expression of pain, on the one hand, and the reaction of the
person witnessing the expression on the other hand.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="Quote4">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Thus I may react with pity in seeing a child
witnessing another person’s pain. Where the pain is my own, on the other hand,
someone’s compassionate look may give me a sense of relief. And so on. It
should be clear that in many cases seeing a form of behaviour as a response to
another’s pain is not to be understood as embodying a hypothesis to the effect
that the discovery that someone else is in pain tends to be accompanied by
behaviour of such and such a description.
In applying a hypothesis we are relying on a correlation between
phenomena, each one of which can be identified independently of the others. But
the elements involved in a situation where someone is responding to another’s
pain will often not be identifiable independently of that situation. Thus, what
enables me to see someone’s behaviour as a response to pain may only be the
fact that I recognise the expression of pain. Or vice versa: someone else’s
response may make me realize that a person is indeed in pain. Or again, it may
only be the appropriateness of someone’s response to another’s behaviour that brings
it out that it is indeed the other’s pain that he is responding to. In such
cases, then, it is not as if I brought the pieces together and concluded that
the situation is one revolving around someone’s pain. Rather, I see the
situation under the aspect of pain, and this way of seeing it, as it were,
brings the pieces together in this particular way.</span></span></span></div>
</blockquote>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">And
later: </span></span></span></div>
<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div class="MsoQuote">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">The <b>nature</b> of the interdependence between
primitive expressions of pain…. (my emphasis) </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoQuote">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">[These quotations
are from Hertzberg, 'Primitive Reactions - Logic or Anthropology?' in Peter A.
French, Theodore E. Uehling, Jr och Howard K. Wettstein (eds.), <i>The Wittgenstein Legacy</i>. Midwest Studies
in Philosophy, Vol. 17. ]</span></span></span></div>
</blockquote>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">Is the
only interest in such observations to clear up some tendency to misuse some
expression in some situation? If so, which? Would it not be better/make more
sense/be more natural to say that they express insights into what language is
or even into the <b>nature</b> of language
or indeed “what it means to be a speaker”? Furthermore, can one not take an
interest in these observations in their own right? What account would you now
give of the nature of what is written here? </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH) <b>Again, I don’t see a problem with my own or
anybody else’s use of these expressions, provided the use is understood to be contrastive
in the sense I suggested above. I hope this won’t be seen as hedging. </b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-GB">What I reacted to was the idea that we might
understand what it means to ask about the nature of language when the idea of a
connection with confusion is explicitly rejected</span></b><span lang="EN-GB">. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>What I am rejecting is the
idea that the only kind of “confusion” at stake is “….the </i></span><i><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: #222222;">tendency
to misunderstand the use of words like “mean”, “understand”, etc, etc; from a <u>preconception</u>
which prevents our getting a clear overview of the use.” The lack of the clear
view does not arise only from preconceptions but from the lack of an overview
and the intrinsic difficulties of obtaining the overview. I find your
observations above interesting and illuminating because they draw to my
attention aspects of the use of language, and hence aspects of our lives, which
I had not thought of before or had not noticed before. I find it interesting
and illuminating because I want to see more clearly what our life is like—your
observations here contribute towards that. Your outlook, on the other hand,
appears to be that you are not motivated in that way, your only interest in the
observations is to provide therapy against the tendency to form
“preconceptions”. Or so it seems to me.</span></i><i><span lang="EN-GB"></span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">But again your point here depends on
blurring the distinction between kinds of confusion or bewilderment, that is
between the confusion expressed in the temptation to use expressions or to say
things that are confused, and the difficulty of obtaining a “synoptic view of
our concepts”</span></i><span lang="EN-GB">.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) It
does seem to me that your own practice in philosophy leaves high and dry your
assertion that philosophy is only about identifying and correcting other
peoples’ tendencies to muddle up their own uses of expression like “meaning”
and “language”. It seems to me to be a mistake to get over-preoccupied with the
use of expressions like “concept” “what such and such is…”. It is almost as if
you have yourself come to treat “concept” as a “meaning kernel”—as if the use
of this substantive <i>must</i> mean that
the user thinks that there is some one thing corresponding to it or as if “what
is such and such …” <i>had to be</i>
understood as a search for essences. And the odd thing about this is that the
way you react to these words is diametrically opposed to what you (correctly)
recommend elsewhere, i.e. that we should be more sensitive to how people use
them in context (i.e. Rhees’s, Wittgenstein’s, mine). <i>Any </i>word can of course be misinterpreted; what is important is how
it should be interpreted in context by the user. </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH)<b> You’re certainly right. In fact I do
sometimes use the word “concept” myself. The danger is when it is made to bear
too heavy a burden.</b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) And when you say “Language is things
we do”, I also wonder if you are not treating “do” as a meaning kernel which
you are using for and giving a pre-eminent place to explaining “language”.
Perhaps one could say that in saying that you are “making a connexion between
the concept of language and the concept of doing”. But so far that leaves it
entirely open as to the sense of “do” that is at stake. Language is of course
making noises or marks on paper. But it is only by making other connections
between “language” and other concepts, e.g. “sense”, “thinking”, “abstraction”
and so on, that you also qualify the relevant sense of “doing”—that it is not
just making noises, etc. So “doing” is not <i>of
itself</i> the key to understanding what language is. And of course I also note
that in your own use of the expression “Language is…” you are yourself opening
an account of “what language is”.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH) <b>Of
course “doing” by itself is not a key to understanding what language is; I mean
it to be understood in a contrastive sense, reminding us that, when we find
ourselves bewildered by the use of some expression (“meaning”, “understanding”,
“knowledge”, “thought” etc), and are tempted to propose some highly complex and
abstract account of what the expressions mean, those expressions are actually used
in ordinary human conversation, and there they are not problematic at all. (Cp
PI § 117.)</b></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) You
say elsewhere (a remark which I take it you must now find “bewildering”):</span></span></span></div>
<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div class="MsoQuote">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">In
particular, helping us to understand the nature of our language, its varying
roles in the life of human beings, is essential for the philosopher’s concerns,
since philosophical problems (as we have said) arise from our failure to
understand the workings of language……How can a natural-historic contribute to
an understanding of the nature of language? ["Language, Philosophy and Natural History", <i>The Limits of Experience</i>, p. 88.]</span></span></span></div>
</blockquote>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(LH) <b>Well, I wrote that pretty long ago
(originally in 1975), but I still think I can stand by most of what I said back
then, given that “workings”, again, is understood in the contrastive sense I
have been talking about</b>.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK2) <i>Again it’s a matter of what it is contrasted
with—not just the confusion of “going wrong”. There is of course a difference
between the intelligibility of an account and the point of it. Your account is
intelligible as an account of aspects of the way that language is a part of our
lives</i></span><i><span lang="EN-GB">—quite
apart from any “contrast with confused ways of thinking about language
learning” (at least I think I understand it without any such contrast in mind).
You may not see any point in it except within the kind of contrast that
interests you, but I find it interesting in itself because I am interested just
in “what it means to be a speaker” full stop. And I wouldn’t see a lot of point
doing philosophy if I didn’t find that interesting—as well as working out how
we can “go wrong”.. </span></i><i><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB">(HK) You
now talk as if understanding the nature or workings of language is not itself
philosophy, but just some prerequisite to sorting out someone else’s problems
with the use of some expressions—<i>that</i>
is philosophy. But this is just back to front. That we can get into muddles
with certain expressions when we reflect on them signals the need for
philosophy, that is for understanding the nature of language, etc.. But we may
also arrive at that need—the need for philosophy proper—through a desire to
understand “the life of human beings”, our lives. Getting it back to front “can
lead to philistinism and generally has”.</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-59200816530245338312014-07-29T16:39:00.000+03:002014-07-29T16:39:40.250+03:00Rhees and Knott on the Importance of Looking Farther<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In my <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/07/rhees-and-knott-on-what-language-is.html">previous entry</a>, I discussed Hugh Knott’s presentation of Rhees’s ideas and his critique of Wittgenstein.
According to Knott, Rhees thought that Wittgenstein had “failed to follow up
adequately the connections between the reality of discourse and our reality as persons”,
later he adds, in explicating Rhees, “the situation in which people are making remarks
and grasping the connections between them has as its background a life in which
words have obtained a currency in multifarious contexts and connections…” (p.
242). </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The perspective in the latter quotation is
one that I can wholeheartedly embrace. Rhees and Knott are emphasizing the
importance of looking farther, of raising our eyes from the immediate
situation, in the effort to get a clear view of what goes on when someone is speaking.
This is important advice. What makes it important is the fact that it offers an
antidote to certain well-entrenched presuppositions of Western philosophy. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">One such notion is that all that is relevant
for an account of what a person is saying is what is the case with him at the
moment of speaking – the mental contents accompanying his words, or the stimuli
to which he is responding. To overcome the problems of this (“psychologistic”)
view of meaning (which ignores the fact that speaking shapes our lives, that it
is something we do together), other philosophers have proposed that we should focus
instead on the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">system of symbols</i>
being employed. According to them, to speak is to make moves that are defined by the rules of something
like a calculus. The problem of this latter perspective is that it abstracts
from the question what a speaker is doing in addressing someone – it ignores
the way in which what is to be understood as having been said is dependent on
the particular context of speaking. (Rhees, by the way, was quite right in pointing
out that the language game metaphor may not do enough to discourage this way of
thinking about speech.) In the first case, as we might put it, we get life without
logic, in the second case logic without life; the problem is to see the logic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in </i>the life.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Rhees writes: </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The
whole idea of a structure or system, like the idea of a logical connexion, depends
on what speaking is. But this is hardly even a statement, because speaking is
not one thing, and “having meaning” is not one thing either. This is perhaps the
hardest thing to understand about language, and it is for this that [Wittgenstein]
refers to the language games. (“Wittgenstein’s Builders”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discussions of Wittgenstein</i>, p. 75.)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Here I am at one with him.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Knott speaks about “the emphasis [Rhees]
gives to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">the mutually constitutive </i>aspects
of the reality of language and our reality as persons” (p. 238, my italics),
and Rhees talks about the “reality” or the “possibility” of discourse, or of
the “unity of language”. Rhees also writes about our speaking the same language
in the different language games. Here I am getting unsure about how to read
him. My difficulties have to do with the role of the word “language”. Rhees
says that “Wittgenstein did not always distinguish between ‘language’ and ‘speaking’,
and sometimes this brings trouble” (“Wittgenstein’s Builders”, p. 71.) I am not
sure why Rhees finds this distinction important, or why he needs the concept of
language to make his points. Why could he not have made them by talking about speaking?
(I think I have an analogous problem with what Knott says about the role of abstraction
in learning to speak, p. 240 f. “Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity.”)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The idea of “a language”, it seems, only comes
to have a role when we are confronted with different languages, or different dialects
– with cases in which the same thing will be said in different ways (where something
that sounds “wrong” to us can still be “right” to others). We could imagine someone
who never came across other languages, we could even imagine a world in which nothing
like “different languages” existed. We may ask what use there would be in these
cases for the word “language” (or what need for the concept), yet speakers would
understand as well as we do how what was said in one context might bear on, or
depend on, what was said in other contexts.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">(It seems to me that the word “language” has
a more prominent role at the beginning of Rhees’s essay, whereas “speaking”
becomes more central from Section 4 onward. I find what he says in the later
part much more striking.) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">It was because I could not see why the
unity of language <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">as such </i>is important
that I tried to suggest, in my paper on Rhees, that the important unity was
that of the speakers’ lives. I’m not sure whether that’s a plausible suggestion.
(By the way, Knott is probably right in arguing that what I say about the “moral
dimension” of the unity is beside the point. I did express some uncertainty about
this myself in the paper.)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In sum: where Knott speaks about the
mutually constitutive aspects of the reality of language and our reality as persons,
what I would talk of, more modestly, is the connection between what speaking is
and what it is to be a speaker. </span></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-1313326335307379342014-07-26T18:50:00.001+03:002014-07-26T18:50:24.048+03:00Rhees and Knott on “What Language Is”<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In his recent article “Rush Rhees on
Wittgenstein and ‘What Language Is’” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophical
Investigations</i>, July 2014, pp 228-245, see <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phin.12039/abstract">abstract</a>), Hugh Knott presents Rhees’s critique of Wittgenstein. He goes on to argue that
the so-called New Wittgensteinians <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>have failed
to appreciate the deepening of perspective intrinsic in that critique. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Knott’s article is rich in content. I wish
to discuss some of his arguments in this and a coming entry. In brief, to
clarify the tangle of voices: Knott thinks that Rhees added something important
to Wittgenstein, and that this has been missed by a number of philosophers
including me. For my part I believe Rhees may indeed have added something, but
I find it hard to get clear about what it was, and I see some problems in Knott's view of presenting it. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Knott comments on some writings of mine as expressions
of a New Wittgensteinian reading (à la Cavell, Conant, Diamond, and others). I’m
not sure whether the shoe fits, though it is true I have learnt a great deal not
least from Cora Diamond (herself an admirer of Rhees). Anyway that does not matter,
as long as my possible misreadings of Rhees are not laid at the door of Diamond
et al. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Rhees is someone whose work I’ve long been impressed
by. At the same time, I have found some of his central ideas hard to grasp, not
in the sense of not wishing to engage with them, but on the contrary being
challenged to reflect further. My article “Rhees on the Unity of Language” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophical Investigations </i>35 (2012),
pp. 224–237</span>) was one expression of my effort to understand his thinking;
in writing it I was aware of its tentative nature. (An earlier attempt was <span style="letter-spacing: -.1pt;">“Rush Rhees on Philosophy and Religious Discourse”,
<i>Faith and Philosophy </i>18 (2001), 431-442.</span>)</div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">According to Knott, then, I have missed out
on something of importance in Rhees. I’ll here try to set out what I take to be
the main matters of contention. I’ll sharpen the points made by Knott – appearing
as Rhees’s spokesperson – in the interest of trying to get clear about what the
issues are. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">As Knott correctly notes, I have been arguing
that philosophical problems arise out of the confusions individuals may have about
the use of certain expressions in our language. Against this idea, presumably
to be found in Wittgenstein, Rhees (he says) contended that there is a question
about <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">what language is</i> which is not
in this way dependent on confusions concerning the use of specific expressions,
and which Wittgenstein failed to take seriously enough. According to Rhees, this
question is grounded in </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">a confusion
or uncertainty connected with being able to speak, and so perhaps with learning
to speak: a confusion in connexion with what it is that one was learning in
learning to speak: with what saying something is and what understanding is.
This sort of confusion or uncertainty (which is not just a confusion of the grammars
of particular expressions) has led men to the scepticism which runs in one way
or another into all the big questions of philosophy. (“Wittgenstein’s Builders”,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discussions of Wittgenstein</i>,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970, p. 74, quoted by Knott.)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In a different context, Rhees writes (also quoted
by Knott):</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">We
cannot understand the central ideas of philosophy – such ideas as reality,
truth, things, intelligibility, understanding – we cannot understand the rôle
they play in language unless we try to understand what language is. (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Without Answers</i>, Routledge and Kegan
Paul 1969, p. 135.)</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">These passages are thought-provoking but at
the same time bewildering. Wittgenstein noted that philosophical inquiry has
often taken the form of asking “What is X?”, leading up to a “substantive” account
of the subject in question: “language is ----“, “reality is ---- “, “the mind
is ----“, “thinking is ----“. He wanted to suggest that these types of question
are misleading. As I understand him, the problem with them is that they lead us
to search for essences, i.e. they presuppose that there is a single answer to
them regardless of someone’s purpose in asking them. Against this, he suggested,
words like “language”, “reality” etc may give rise to various bewilderments,
but not to one big question. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">On this view, language, for instance, is
not a problem for us <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">as such</i>. We speak
it daily and may never be bewildered by the fact that we are able to make ourselves
understood and are able to understand what others are saying. It is when we do philosophy
that questions about understanding and meaning may come to appear puzzling in
various ways. These puzzles grow from a deep-rooted tendency to misunderstand the
use of words like “mean”, “understand”, etc, etc; from a preconception which prevents
our getting a clear overview of the use. Thus, our picture may be organized
around the presupposition that “mean” and “understand” must be names of mental
states; the task of philosophical clarification consists in making us see the particular
uses for what they really are. (Knott introduces a dichotomy between the simple
description of use – say, by means of a simple definition and some examples of
usage - and the clarification of a concept, p. 237. The former, something of
the kind provided, say, in a language guide, may leave our philosophical preconceptions
untouched; the alternative, however, as I see it, is not to study the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">concept </i>as though that held some kind of
unity, but rather to look more deeply a the uses in their variety.)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">(It seems likely that the form puzzles about
words take is partly conditioned by our culture. Say, by the pre-eminent role
of written language, the prestige of intellectual pursuits, the position of science
and ideas about science in our society. One could, I think, imagine people whose
thinking about language for some reason never ran into these snags.)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Rhees on the other hand appears to think that
there is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">one</i> given confusion bound up
with the question what language is, with what one learns in learning to speak.
(His words might even be taken to suggest that this confusion makes itself felt
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in </i>our learning to speak, but I don’t
think that can have been his intention.) And I get the sense that for him,
somehow, this bewilderment is shared by us all and inevitable. This reading is
underscored in Knott’s presentation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">If that is Rhees’s idea, I don’t know what
to make of it. I would need to know more about what that confusion or uncertainty
are taken to be like, and how they are supposed to lead to skepticism. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Knott argues that, in spite of my protestations,
I too put forward general remarks about the nature of language in my writings.
Thus, in <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">”Hacker on Wittgenstein's Ethnological
Approach” (in Eric Lemaire & Jesús Padilla Gálvez (eds.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wittgenstein: Issues and Debates. </i>Ontos
Verlag, 2010) I write ”learning to speak means learning to express oneself by
means of words” (p.122). </span>Well, to be sure this is a general observation,
but these words hardly express some deep insight into what it means to be a speaker.
Tell this to an ordinary citizen and her response is likely to be: “of course,
so what?” It’s only when we’re in a philosophical mood and are inclined to think
that learning to speak can only consist in acquiring certain verbal knacks or
in learning to name objects that this reminder serves a purpose.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">I shall address the unity of language in a
later entry.</span><span lang="EN-GB"></span></div>
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mso-para-margin-left:0cm;
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In the extensive discussion of the Gettier
cases (see my <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/06/what-can-we-learn-from-gettier.html">earlier entry</a>), little attention has been given to the
notion of justification. If his critique is to have a point, Gettier needs the
justified-true-belief story. But how are we to understand the account that he is
attacking? When do we speak of justification, how does talk of justification
enter into the context of human conversation? Very often, the issue is
discussed as though matters of justification could be debated regardless of why
the question arises, who raises it, in what circumstances. (Contextualists are
an apparent exception – I hope to get back to them in a later entry.) </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Gettier cites Ayer and Chisholm as expressing
a similar point by speaking in terms of “having a right to be sure” and “having
adequate evidence”, respectively. According to Gettier, these forms of
expression can be treated as equivalent.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Consider an example. Martha said, “The
water here is deep enough for diving in”. Was she justified in saying this? In
one case, our concern is with deciding whether or not we can jump in from here.
Here the question of justification is a question of reliability. Is what she’s
saying true? This is important, since if there are underwater rocks, diving in
would be very risky. We might ask her how she knows, though if she lives here
and we know she often goes swimming, we may just take her word for it,
provided, of course, we take her to be a reliable person. Either way we may tell
one another, “Martha knows the water here is deep enough for diving in”. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Would this be a case of knowledge equalling
justified true belief? Well, it would be strange here to speak about the latter
as a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">condition </i>of knowledge. We don’t
infer Martha’s knowledge from the truth of what she is saying, rather we reason
to the truth from the conviction that she knows. So this doesn’t seem to be a
case of what Gettier is criticizing.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In another case, our concern is not with how
things stand, but with Martha’s right to say what she said. This is the most
likely to be the case when something goes wrong, but then that wouldn’t be the
sort of case Gettier was trying to exclude – no “true belief” there. On the
other hand we might think that what Martha said was true, but upbraid her for
giving her assurance too easily. Suppose she had asked a local whether diving
was safe there, and he had told her it was. Then it turned out he had been
speaking about a different shore with the same name. Though as it happens both
shores are safe. That’s seems more like a Gettier case. We might say she had an
excuse for making the mistake – she had a “justification” in that sense. But that
is hardly what Gettier was attacking: “knowledge = true belief with an excuse”.
(Neither would we say, with Chisholm, that her evidence was adequate, nor with
Ayer that she had a right to be sure.) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">We haven’t succeeded, it seems, in finding
a case in which we are tempted to say what Gettier criticizes us for saying. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">*</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In the Gettier debate, there is little consideration
for how words are used in actual human conversation (how long will the anti-Wittgenstein,
anti-Ordinary Language Philosophy backlash last?). Consequently, w<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">hat are evidently descriptions of different
contexts of use get treated as competing theories. Thus, according to </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa & Matthias
Steup,</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Internalists</span></i><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">
about justification think that whether a belief is justified depends wholly on
states in some sense <i>internal</i> to the subject… <i>Externalists</i> about
justification think that factors external to the subject can be relevant for
justification… </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">”<a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/">TheAnalysis of Knowledge</a>", <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i>(Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">.</i>)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Now, if what is at issue is a person’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">responsibility</i> for claiming to know something,
it is natural to assume that what will be relevant above all are “states
internal to” her, assuming that to mean: the information at her disposal, her
previous knowledge and experience, her competence for forming certain types of judgment,
etc., whereas when the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reliability</i> of
the speaker’s claim is concerned, matters independent of the speaker will
become important. Thus, rather than internalists and externalists addressing a single
question (what might that question be, in a context of regular conversation?), it
is plausible to suggest that what we have here are two fairly plausible answers
to two different questions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">In fact, neglect of conversation seems
almost to have become an ideology. In the article referred to above, speaking about
the context-dependence of knowledge-claims, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Jonathan
Jenkins Ichikawa & Matthias Steup seem rather dismissive of the relevance
of considerations of use for the analysis of knowledge. According to them, the “relationship
between contextualism and the analysis of knowledge is not at all
straightforward. Arguably, they have different subject matters (the former a
word, and the latter a mental state)”, though they admit that “the methodology
of theorizing about knowledge may be helpfully informed by semantic
considerations about the language in which such theorizing takes place.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Presumably, “semantic considerations” are
taken to include observations concerning the way a word enters into conversation.)
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Getting clear about
the use of the word “know” (“semantics”), on their account, can thus be distinguished
from study of the “mental state” of knowing. Knowing, as it were, is like a
porcupine which can be observed, measured and dissected without our having to pay
much attention to the way the word “porcupine” figures in human conversation. What
is left open is how this language-independent observation of knowledge is
supposed to be carried out. I’m afraid that in practice it will simply consist
in the philosopher asking himself, independently of any context, “Would this be
knowledge?”, “Would that be knowledge?” , as it were, feeling the taste of the word
on his tongue. How reliable is that? </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-57820067964378951532014-06-29T16:06:00.000+03:002014-06-29T16:06:04.202+03:00NORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW 3 (1) 2014 available onlineNORDIC WITTGENSTEIN REVIEW 3 (1) 2014
<br />
<br />Note from the Editors
<br />Yrsa Neuman, Martin Gustafsson, Lars Hertzberg 5-6
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/2970/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/2970/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />INVITED PAPER
<br />Reasons for Action: Wittgensteinian and Davidsonian perspectives in
historical, meta-philosophical and philosophical context Hans-Johann
Glock 7-46
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/2971/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/2971/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />ARTICLES
<br />Trust in Conversation
<br />David Cockburn 47-68
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1947/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1947/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />"Meaning is Use" and Wittgenstein’s Treatment of Philosophical Problems
<br />Stefan Giesewetter 69-89
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1939/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1939/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />The Trouble with Harry
<br />Don S. Levi 91-111
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1929/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1929/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />Wittgenstein's Critical Physiognomy FULLTEXT PDF
<br />Daniel Kirwan Wack 113-137
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1942/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1942/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />FROM THE ARCHIVES
<br />A Passport Photo of Two: On an Allusion in the Pictures of Wittgenstein
and von Wright in Cambridge
<br />Christian Eric Erbacher, Bernt Österman 139-149
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1948/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1948/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />The Wittgenstein Collection of the Austrian National Library
<br />Alfred Schmidt 151-172
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1897/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1897/pdf</a>
<br />
<br />BOOK REVIEWS
<br />Fact and Fiction – Ludwig Wittgenstein. Ein biographisches Album (2012)
by Michael Nedo
<br />Dinda L. Gorlée 173-177
<br /><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1904/pdf">http://www.nordicwittgensteinreview.com/article/view/1904/pdf</a>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-88451005837519457602014-06-24T11:46:00.000+03:002014-06-24T11:46:06.980+03:00What can we learn from Gettier?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Edmund Gettier, in 1963, published a short <a href="http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html">paper</a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>(1,000 words) which stirred up and keeps
stirring up debate in epistemology. In it he gave what have been thought to be
counter-examples to the plausible-sounding idea that knowledge is to be defined
as justified true belief. (I discussed his paper in <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2012/05/fake-questions-and-experimental.html">an earlier entry</a>.)
In these examples someone is said to hold a true belief, to be justified in
holding it, and yet not be said to know it. In response, philosophers have tried
to formulate ways of getting around the problem, others have proposed different
examples, etc. (See <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/gettier/">http://www.iep.utm.edu/gettier/</a>.)</span>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Many of the examples used in the debate are utterly
artificial or farfetched – that, I would argue, is a problem in itself. I wish
to get back to that issue in a later entry. However, the following example
seems to be fairly straightforward: as I hurry past the big clock on the
railway station, I notice that it shows six. However, without my knowing it,
this clock, which I have always relied on in the past, actually stopped at six
this morning. On the other hand, it actually is six p.m., and I believe it is.
So I have grounds for believing it to be six, it <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">is</i> six, and yet one might question whether I <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">know</i> that it is six. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">So far so good. The question that intrigues me is what
contribution this debate is making to an understanding of knowledge. What would
happen if we found ourselves at a loss for a definition of knowledge? First of
all, what purpose would a definition of knowledge serve? Clearly, we don’t need
one for pedagogical purposes: it is not a question of conveying the use of the
words “know” or “knowledge” to people who are not familiar with these words.
(Proposal for a thought experiment: try to imagine life without these words or
equivalent words in some other language.) </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Sometimes definitions are created in order to
formulate standards for the application of a word. We do this when we introduce
technical terms, or give a specialized application to a word currently in use.
A “child”, for the purposes of buying a train ticket, is anyone under the age
of 12, etc. But neither can this be what we are after here. The discussion is
not about reforming the use of these words, nor about sharpening the criteria;
rather, it is concerned with giving an account of how they are actually used. Remember:
what seems to make Gettier’s examples counter-examples is the fact that they
seem to fulfil the standard we presumably accept, yet we are not ready to
accept them as cases of knowledge. (Hanfling, however, has argued that
Gettier-type examples might qualify as knowledge in certain cases.) </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Another way of thinking about the task of definitions
in philosophy is to think about them as providing an overview of the use of
some expression in the language. On this view of the task, the problem is not
that speakers are at a loss when it comes to using certain expressions; the
difficulty arises when we try to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">give an
account</i> of the use. The Gettier examples have been taken to show that the
picture we had of the use of “know” and “knowledge” was erroneous, and
philosophers have been trying to amend the picture ever since. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The conventional way of thinking about this task is to
assume that we have to identify some condition, some state of things, to which the
words refer: “knowledge = X”. To say that I, or somebody else, knows something
is to maintain that the condition X is fulfilled with respect to the matter in
question. But would anyone seriously wish to defend the definition Gettier was
trying to undermine?</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">When we speak about knowledge, would we ever be
inclined to substitute “justified true belief” for the word? First of all, the
whole discussion doesn’t seem to fit first person present tense uses of “know”.
That’s evidently because there’s something strange about first person present
tense uses of “justified”. Just imagine the following conversation: </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“Are you sure your sister will find the way?” –
Suppose instead of answering (1) “I know she will” I said, (2) “My sister will
find the way, I believe she will, and I am justified in so believing”, or for
short, (3) “I’m justified in believing she’ll find the way.” </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The suggested paraphrases sound bizarre. Perhaps if I
said (3) I meant something like “I have grounds for believing … “; but if
that’s what I mean, it would be misleading for me to say “I know…” (I hope get
back to the sense of “justified” in a later entry.)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">What then about third person uses? A to B: “She knows
that those mushrooms have to be parboiled.” </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(1) “So you don’t need to tell her.” The question
whether they need to be parboiled doesn’t arise. Both A and B take it for
granted that they need to be parboiled to get rid of the poison. The question
how Sue came to know it doesn’t really matter. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(2) Paraphrase: “Sue knows how to cook mushrooms. She
says they have to be parboiled. So we can rely on that.” They assume that Sue
has the competence, and from that they infer that the mushrooms have to be
parboiled, arguing from knowledge to truth, as it were.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(3) “So we’ll have to think of another method of
poisoning her.” Again, the truth is taken for granted, her justification
doesn’t matter, the main thing is that A and B know how Sue will act. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(These examples were suggested by Oswald Hanfling’s
chapter “Knowledge and the uses of ‘knowledge’”, in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophy and Ordinary Language: The Bent
and Genius of Our Tongue</i>, 96 ff.)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">One point to note here is that there is a shift
between foreground and background in these examples. In (1) and (3) the facts
are taken for granted, what is foregrounded is Sue’s relation to the facts. In
(2) we argue from Sue’s assertion to the facts. So we might say, in some cases
the truth of the judgment in question is being presupposed, in other cases the
truth is what we wish to get at. The definition which is the target of
Gettier’s critique fails to acknowledge this distinction. Another related point
is that we need to distinguish between the question of justification and truth.
Suppose it is discovered that those mushrooms don’t really have to be parboiled;
the story of their being poisonous is really a myth, though one that is
generally believed at the time. After learning this, we might say that people
used to believe they had to be parboiled, not that they knew it. But that
doesn’t mean that A and B were misusing the word “know”, since they believed
the judgment – and its truth was not at issue. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">I believe that most attempts to define “know” miss
both these points. Indeed, this is probably what is bound to happen if you
start out looking for a definition. A definition is supposed to give you the
conditions for a word truly to apply to some object or circumstance. This
presupposes that the conditions for its application can be determined
independently of a context of use. When it comes to the widely ramified use of
a word like “know”, this blinds us to the dynamic of the word’s actual roles in
the context of human interaction. The problem may not be so evident when it
comes to words or expressions like “titanium”, or “king’s gambit”, or “referendum”,
where the purpose of asking for a definition may be taken for granted. (Cp.
Avner Baz on “the theorist’s question”, in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">When Words are Called for: a Defense of Ordinary Language Philosophy, </i>chap.
3).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">So I suggest the lesson from Gettier should be, not
that some other definition should be found, nor that the lack of a credible
definition constitutes a crisis in epistemology, but rather that the search for
a definition is not the right way of trying to get a clear understanding of how
we operate with the word “know”. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-25273352515699763432014-02-22T15:48:00.000+02:002014-02-22T15:48:15.399+02:00Morality grounded in grammar?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">I want to continue
my reflections on the interchange between Drew Carter and Michael Campbell (see
my <a href="http://languageisthingswedo.blogspot.fi/2014/01/morality-and-impersonal.html">previous entry</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Carter (as I read him), Wittgensteinian
moral philosophers – such as Raimond Gaita and Christopher Cordner – regard morality
as grounded in propositions possessing a kind of indubitable truth. Two of his examples
are “One can’t love evil” and “One can’t love cow dung”. The first he understands
to be a grammatical claim, the second a basic fact of human nature. He considers
a grounding in human nature as solid, while a grammatical grounding seems to
reduce morality to a mere matter of convention; he speaks of a “slide to
relativism and subjectivism”. (I discussed the idea of a grounding in human nature
in the first entry.)</span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 65.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Campbell, in my view rightly, rejects the proposed
dichotomy between two kinds of grounding. I’d be inclined to say: to think of grammar
and of human nature as somehow offering parallel modalities – each setting its
own kind of limit to what is possible in moral thought – is confused. Indeed, I’m
not even clear what it would be to think of the two sentences above, taken in
isolation, as expressing either an empirical claim or a point of grammar. Deciding
whether someone loves evil (or cow dung) is not like establishing whether someone
is allergic to fish roe. For one thing, the terms of the relation, “fish roe” and
“allergy” are distinct. But love and its object cannot in this way be thought of
separately. How love is expressed, what it demands of us, is dependent on the object
of love. To show my love of someone is to show my understanding of her. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 65.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is also unclear <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">under
what aspect</i> a person might be taken to love evil. Does he love evil for its
own sake (e.g. a sadist, a person embittered by life, someone in the grip of vindictiveness,
etc), or for what he hopes it will bring (e.g. a terrorist)? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 65.2pt;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">For another thing, and connected with this, we are acquainted
with the kinds of context in which food allergies are spoken about, the reasons
for being concerned about it, the practical consequences. But when the philosopher
raises the question whether it is possible or impossible to love evil, there is
no context enabling us to get clear about the nature of the relation being considered.
</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">*</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">What about the
notion that morality might be grounded in grammar? How are we to think of the
idea that the wrongness of an action is part of the very concept of the action
(is internal to its description)? Would that mean that someone who murders an
innocent human being or who lies to a friend is in violation of grammar or in
the grip of a grammatical confusion?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Campbell quotes Cora
Diamond’s “Eating Meat and Eating People”:</span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">[T]here are
some actions. . . that are part of the way we come to understand and indicate
our recognition of <i>what</i> kind it is
with which we are concerned. [. . .] [I]t is not “morally wrong” to eat our
pets; people who ate their pets would not have pets <i>in the same sense of the term. </i>(</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">C. Diamond, <i>The Realistic Spirit</i>,
MIT Press, 1991, <span> </span>p. 323.)</span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: SV-FI;"> </span></div>
</blockquote>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Well, there might
be circumstances in which a person would find herself reduced to eating her dog,
for instance, to fend off imminent starvation. So perhaps we might reformulate
the point as follows: to think of an animal as a pet is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not to think of it as food</i> - though the fact that a person will eat
something in a dire situation, or, say, as part of a ritual, does not entail that
she thinks of it as food.</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Would the realization that
if I thought of my dog as food I would not regard it as a pet in the same sense
as others do somehow keep me from eating it? Why should it? I might simply
shrug my shoulders and say to myself: “All right, so my dog <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">isn’t</i> a pet in that sense.” The fact
that we don’t think of pets as food is bound up with the fact that we aren’t <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tempted </i>to eat them, indeed we normally
have a revulsion to eating them. In that sense, not regarding pets as food is
not a “mere convention”, notwithstanding the fact that customs concerning what
kinds of animal are food vary between cultures. (In China, for instance, the attitude
towards eating dog meat is different: there is a movement afoot there to discourage
the eating of dogs and cats. In this connection, one may need to distinguish between
eating certain species of animals often kept as pets, and eating one’s own
pets.) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Now could we imagine people
who shared our attitudes to pets in most respects, but regarded them as food? First,
we should recall that “our” attitude to pets vary greatly: pets are a varied
category (the Swedish category <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">husdjur </i>even
more so), and so is the category of pet owner: not every dog owner has his dog
sign Christmas cards or brings flowers to his cat’s grave each year on the date
of her death. Anyway, if there is a conflict between regarding an animal as
food and having towards it the other attitudes that go with regarding an animal
as a pet, the conflict is of a psychological kind; a matter of “human nature”.
This by itself entails nothing as to the way pets <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">should</i> be treated.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Could we, on the other
hand, imagine a society lacking anything corresponding to our concept of a pet?
Without difficulty: though of course, life in that society would differ
markedly from ours in several respects. </span></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-89376456729337787352014-01-29T18:21:00.000+02:002014-01-29T18:21:37.154+02:00Morality and the (im)personal<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"><br /></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">In a recent article, Drew Carter (<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9205.2011.01467.x/pdf">“’Part of the Very Concept’: Wittgensteinian Moral Philosophy”</a>, <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>, 36 (2013), 37-55<i> </i>)</span><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"><span lang="EN-GB">, criticizes philosophers like Raimond Gaita and Christopher Cordner
for leaving the foundation of morality unclear. They appear to suggest, he
claims, that moral judgments are grounded in a conceptual scheme (a grammar),
but if so, they constitute mere conventions. This is obscured, it appears, by
the fact that what these philosophers claim to construe as matters of mere grammar
are actually facts of human nature. Carter’s underlying worry, if I understand
him correctly, is that in the absence of a grounding in human nature, nothing
distinguishes moral convictions from mere matters of personal taste or
preference. </span></span></span>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">In a response (<a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phin.12033/pdf">“Inwardness and Sociability”</a>, <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>, 37
(2014),<span> </span>57-77),
Michael Campbell questions the idea of a grounding of morality whether in grammar
or in facts of human nature. In the same issue there is a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phin.12032/pdf">rejoinder</a>
by Carter . I found Campbell’s response on the whole well-argued and
instructive. At the same time, there were things in the discussion I found it
hard to get a grip on. In this and a later installment I wish to make a few comments,
mainly with the purpose of trying to work out the issues for myself. <span> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Why is it a problem if moral convictions cannot be
distinguished from matters of taste or preference? One central reason, I take
it (though this is not made explicit in the debate), is that this would make it
impossible to understand why we should accord a person’s moral convictions a
respect which we do not accord, say, his taste in curtains or his preference
for watching hockey rather than football on tv. Respect, I should empasize, is
compatible with rejection, though it will show itself in the <i>manner</i> in which the rejection gets
expressed. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Thus, for instance, there is the question of whether the
unwillingness of health-care personnel to participate in abortions is to be
respected, or whether they can be obliged to participate as part of their
professional duties. This, one might suggest, is connected with whether we
think of their unwillingness as an expression of a moral conviction or just a
personal reluctance. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">For another example, let us consider an episode in the
film <i>Chariots of Fire</i>, which is based
on real events<i>. </i>Eric Liddell was on
the British team for the 1924 Olympics in Paris. He was deeply religious, and
was reported to have said, </span><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">"I
believe that God made me for a purpose. But He also made me fast, and when I
run, I feel His pleasure."</span><span style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"> <span lang="EN-GB">This meant that he would not race on
the Sabbath. He is selected to run the 100 metres, but when it turns out that
the trial heats for the event are on a Sunday, he declares that he cannot compete.
The British Olympic Committee, including the Prince of Wales, try to persuade
him to change his mind, but he does not budge. (The standoff is resolved by his
swapping events with another member of the British team.)</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">What I found of interest in this connection is the way
the committee members approach the issue. They ask Liddell whether he would not
be willing to <i>make a sacrifice</i> for
Britain by competing on a Sunday. Thus, they seem to treat his unwillingness to
compete as a matter of personal preference rather than an ethical / religious
conviction. (I submit that the ethical and the religious are on a par in this
respect.) They think that for him running on the Sabbath is something he <i>prefers</i> not to do, and thus running
would involve a sacrifice on his part, one that he might be persuaded to
undertake for a more important cause (the glory of Britain). But actually <i>abstaining</i> from running was the sacrifice
he felt obliged to make; for him, there was no higher cause.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">As I construe Carter’s position, if it is to be
intelligible why certain convictions are to be accorded respect, they must be
grounded in something independent of the individual or the practices of some
group. A conviction deserves respect if it is “right”, as it were. The analogy
here seems to be with being a credible witness: the speaker deserves to be
believed if she has what we can all agree are valid grounds for the claims she
is making. Similarly, the Olympic Committee might have been able to respect Liddell’s
abstention if he had adduced grounds on which we can all agree, e.g. considerations
of health. Since he could not adduce such grounds, there was no right or wrong
about his wish, it simply boiled down to a matter of personal (or group)
preference, and thus had no particular claim to be respected.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Campbell’s position, I gather, is almost the opposite
of this. What makes a conviction deserving of respect is the depth with which
it is held by the individual, the degree to which it is anchored in his or her
life. This is why it is hard to imagine, for instance, how a love of evil – one
of the examples discussed by Carter and Campbell – could take a form worthy of
respect. Perhaps we could say: the more alien the proposed object of love
appears to us, the heavier the burden of proof required if we are to be able to
meet it with respect.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">In a later entry, I plan to comment on the relation
between morality and grammar. </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com20tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3246270227533841196.post-689177130735248832013-12-08T16:43:00.000+02:002013-12-08T16:43:51.673+02:00Everyday Language and Workday Language <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<![endif]--><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">What is the ”everyday” of the
everyday language Wittgenstein talks about in the <i>Philosophical Investigations</i>? Actually, there are several contrasts
between the everyday and the non-everyday that seem to be of relevance in
connection with Wittgenstein’s thought<i>. </i></span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 65.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">In
most cases in the <i>Philosophical
Investigations </i>where the English has ”everyday” it’s a translation of <i>“alltäglich” </i>(§ 106 <i>“alltägliches Denken”, </i>§ 116<i>
“alltägliche Verwendung”, </i>§ 134 <i>“alltägliche
Sprache”, </i>§ 412 <i>“alltäglicher Sinn”</i>).
In § 81 Wittgenstein uses the word <i>“Umgangssprache”
</i>[literally “the language of social intercourse”]<i>.</i> The contrast in most of these cases is with a metaphysical use (§
116) or with an ideal language (e.g. §§ 81, 106, 134); as we might put it, with
a language imagined by philosophers, a language in which things are expressed,
as it were, in a mode true to their real essence; this could also be something
like Frege’s concept script which, although it may not be intended for actual
use, is supposed to express thoughts in a logically transparent way. This idea
exerted a powerful attraction on philosophers of the day, but Wittgenstein at
this stage considered its attraction to be insidious: the idea that such an imagined
language might somehow deepen our understanding of our concepts was illusory. To
get clear about them we should attend to their actual uses.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 65.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">*</span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">§ 18 hints
at a different contrast:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 65.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Our language can be
regarded as an ancient city: a maze of little streets and squares, of old and
new houses, of houses with extensions from various periods, and all this
surrounded by a multitude of new suburbs with straight and regular streets and
uniform houses.</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Here the contrast is between
different areas of our actual language. The suburbs, it would appear, are
mainly symbolic of the technical terminologies used in science and in various
professions, words like “ionized”, or “erythrocyte”, or “conditioned reflex”, or
“Alzheimer’s disease”, or “eminent domain”. These are well-regulated
terminologies, often created by means of stipulative definitions, and hence
their use is mostly easy to survey, in distinction to that of the central parts
of the city with its mixture of old and new buildings, and a street pattern
that has developed more organically. It is because the organic, “vernacular”
parts of language (we might call it the language of everyman, and every woman) are
difficult to survey that they tend to give rise to philosophical problems. The
suburbs hold less of philosophical interest. They are a kind of artifical
language. (Though sometimes seemingly clean and straightforward technical terms
carry a subconscious burden inherited from the areas of language out of which
they have been created. Or they may take on a life of their own, perhaps
returning to the contexts of everyday conversation.)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"><span> </span>Many, though not all, of the words belonging to
what might be called the ageless core of our language are philosophically
problematic because they have a variety of different but related uses, and thus
tend to recur in a large variety of contexts: I am thinking of words such as “see”,
“know”, “think”, “will”, “feel”, “mean”, “time”, “because”, “just”. (In some
passage that I have been unable to retrieve, Strawson, I believe, refers to
this vocabulary as words without a history. In some sense, we might say, they have
always been there. Indeed, what would it be to imagine language without them?)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";"><span> </span>Wittgenstein makes a related point, in <i>Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology</i>,
Volume II: </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">§
216 ... our concept “thinking” is widely ramified. Like a ramified traffic
network which connects many out-of-the-way places with each other.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">§
218 Couldn’t the same be said of “believing”, “doing”, “being glad”?</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Between the “ageless” and the
artificial lie words with a history, words such as “religion”, or “citizen”, or
“intelligence”, or “literature”. They too give rise to philosophical
bewilderment, but maybe not as deep or intractable as the other kind. (This
trichotomy is not intended to be exhaustive, simply to point to some
characteristic differences between types of words.)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">*</span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">A third contrast is that
between thinking about a word or sentence in isolation and thinking about its
role in human interaction; holiday vs. workday. This of course is the theme of
two oft-quoted remarks in the <i>Philosophical
Investigations</i>:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">§ 38: Naming seems to be a <i>strange </i>connection of a word with an
object. – And such a strange connection really obtains, particularly when a
philosopher tries to fathom <i>the </i>relation between name and what is named
by staring at an object in front of him and repeating a name or even the word
“this” innumerable times. For philosophical problems arise when language <i>goes
on holiday</i>. And <i>then </i>we may indeed imagine naming to be some
remarkable mental act , as it were the baptism of an object.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">§
132: ... a reform for particular practical purposes, an improvement in our
terminology designed to prevent misunderstandings in practice, may well be
possible. But these are not the cases we are dealing with. The confusions which
occupy us arise when language is, as it were, idling, not when it is doing
work. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 65.2pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Book Antiqua","serif";">Here the idea is that our bewilderment
is dissolved when we attend to the actual functioning of our expressions. Not because
doing so provides answers to our questions, but because it reminds us that in the
context of actual conversation, the problems that beset us do not arise. The need
to attend to actual functioning, of course, does not simply concern the language
of social intercourse, but the languages of the sciences, law, theology, etc as
well. The everyday of the language, not just the language of everyday. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
Lars Hertzberghttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09840441217838499844noreply@blogger.com0